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Nucleotide vs Nucleoside: Difference and Comparison
Nucleosides molecules in biochemistry are the basic compounds containing a base that is nitrogenous and five carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose). The nitrogenous base may be adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). These are some of the basic molecules necessary to make nucleotides, which in turn serve as monomers for all types of small and large ribonucleic acids. Learn More
What is RNA Primer in DNA Replication?
An RNA primer is a short, single-stranded nucleic acid sequence composed of ribonucleotides. It serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis during processes like DNA replication and PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). RNA primers are essential because DNA polymerases, enzymes responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands, can only attach new nucleotides onto an existing strand of nucleotides. Learn More
What is Short Hairpin RNA (shRNA) and How It Works?
Short Hairpin RNA (shRNA) is a specific type of hairpin RNA that is widely used in gene silencing techniques through the RNAi mechanism. shRNA is specifically made to degrade certain mRNA molecules and thus repress or mute the gene expression of that specific gene. The technology has in recent years been established as a powerful tool for functional genomics, therapeutic discovery and molecular biology research. Learn More
Introduction to RNA Binding Proteins
RNA binding proteins form a large and diverse class of proteins that bind to RNA molecules to control their activity. RNA binding proteins are important for RNA splicing, transport, stability, translation and other cellular processes. The RBPs specifically recognize their RNA targets based on RBP's RNA-binding domains (RBDs) that recognize defined RNA nucleotide or structural moieties. Learn More
Diverse IVT RNA in Vaccine Development: mRNA, saRNA, circRNA
mRNA was discovered in 1961, but it wasn't until the COVID-19 pandemic that its prominent contribution to COVID-19 vaccines garnered significant attention, driving continued interest in this therapy from investors. In 2023, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the two pioneers of mRNA technology, Katalin Kariko and Drew Weissman, further highlighting its significance. To address the limitations of traditional linear mRNA vaccines, technologies such as self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA/SAM) and trans-amplifying mRNA (taRNA) have emerged. Learn More
Key Points in Small Nucleic Acid Drug CMC Development
As biotechnology advances, small nucleic acid drugs are gaining attention in medical research. They're seen as a promising new approach due to their efficiency, precise targeting, and reduced side effects. They find applications in gene therapy, cancer treatment, and immune regulation. However, for their successful clinical use, thorough research and development in CMC (chemistry, manufacturing, and controls) are essential to guarantee their quality, safety, and effectiveness. Learn More
Targeted mRNA-Delivery to Immune Cells for Improved Vaccine Efficacy
In the field of vaccine development, the emergence of mRNA-based vaccines has revolutionized traditional approaches, offering unparalleled potential in terms of safety, efficacy, and adaptability. These vaccines come with various advantages, including rapid development timelines, scalable production, and the ability to swiftly adapt to new pathogens. mRNA vaccines present an enticing pathway for combating infectious diseases, including those caused by newly emerging pathogens and drug-resistant bacteria. While mRNA vaccines hold immense promise, challenges persist, including transient antibody responses and off-target effects associated with systemic delivery. Learn More
Nanoparticle carrier-another option for nucleic acid delivery
Gene therapy and oligonucleotide drugs can alleviate or cure many diseases that traditional methods cannot cope with, especially those caused by gene defects or abnormalities. Although RNAi is considered to be more effective in treating diseases compared with other methods, there are still some challenges in delivering small interfering RNA (siRNA) to diseased sites for gene therapy. Nanoparticles have unique advantages compared with other carriers and been paid attention to for RNAi delivery. Learn More
Status of Drug Development Based on Exosomes
Exosome is a type of extracellular vesicle (EV) with a diameter of about 30-150 nm. They are secreted by all cell types and can be found in most body fluids, including blood, saliva, and urine. Exosomes are "nanospheres" with bilayer membranes, which contain a wide array of substances from parent cells, such as microRNAs, mRNA expression, lncRNA, DNA, lipids, peptides, and proteins (including oncoprotein, Tumor suppressor genes, transcription regulators and splicing factors). The composition of exosomes is critical because they can be used as biomarkers and provide an indication of their function in biological processes. Learn More
What are RNA drugs?
RNA drugs refer to RNA with the function of treating diseases, which can directly regulate the expression of the disease genes from the source, which is one of the effective means of precision medicine. RNA drugs mainly include small interfering RNA, small activated nucleic acids, mRNA drugs, ribozymes, etc. Learn More
siRNA applications
Small interfering RNA (siRNA), sometimes called short interfering RNA or silencing RNA, is a type of double-stranded non-coding RNA molecule, usually 20-27 base pairs in length. siRNA can specifically target specific mRNA for degradation and prevent translation, thereby interfering with the expression of specific genes with complementary nucleotide sequences. siRNA can also be used to knock down non-protein-coding genes, such as long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). The use of siRNA can achieve transient silencing in a variety of cell lines, and the experiments are usually limited to a short time range of about 2-4 days. Learn More
mRNA vaccine delivery strategy
mRNA vaccines have the advantages of rapid development, low-cost production, and safe management, and have strong potential to replace conventional vaccines. During the vaccination process, the formulation and delivery strategies of mRNA contribute to the effective expression and presentation of antigens and immune stimulation. mRNA vaccines have been delivered in many forms, including: encapsulated by delivery vectors, such as lipid nanoparticles, polymers, peptides, free mRNA in solution, and wrapped by dendritic cells in vitro. Appropriate delivery materials and formulation methods usually improve vaccine efficacy, which is also affected by the choice of an appropriate route of administration. Learn More
siRNA synthesis method
Now, small interfering RNA (siRNA) has become the method of choice for mammalian cell genetic analysis and has the potential to be used as a treatment for a variety of cancers, acquired and inherited diseases. Here, we describe four methods for generating siRNA for mammalian RNAi experiments, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. The best way to generate siRNA depends on the purpose of the experiment. We will discuss the types of applications that suit them best. Learn More
Therapeutic Principle and Construction Method of mRNA
The use of mRNA as vaccines and drugs to prevent, diagnose and treat certain diseases is gradually becoming the focus of pharmaceutical companies. mRNA-based therapy, in short, is to introduce chemically modified mRNA molecules into the cytoplasm, and use the nucleotides in the cytoplasm for transcription and expression to produce the proteins needed by the body. Learn More
What is mRNA
RNA is divided into messenger RNA (mRNA) and non-coding RNA according to its structure and function; non-coding RNA is divided into large non-coding RNA and small non-coding RNA: large non-coding RNA includes ribosomal RNA, long non-coding RNA, and non-coding RNA. Encoding small RNAs include transfer RNA, ribozymes, small molecule RNAs and so on. mRNA is a type of single-stranded ribonucleic acid that is transcribed from a strand of DNA as a template and carries genetic information that can guide protein synthesis. Learn More
Oligonucleotide-Conjugated Antibodies for Diagnostics and Therapeutics
Oligonucleotide-antibody conjugates (oligo-Ab) are a new class of synthetic chimeric biomolecules. After the oligonucleotide-conjugated antibody binds to its target, the protein level can be converted to the oligonucleotide level, which greatly improves the sensitivity of protein detection and allows the use of multiplexed methods. Learn More
mRNA Capping Method
Mature mRNAs require 5' cap structures, which are evolutionarily conserved modifications in eukaryotes and are essential for the translation of most proteins in vivo. The m7G cap structure consists of 7-methyl guanosine (m7G) triphosphate linked to the 5' end of the mRNA via a 5'-5' triphosphate bridge (m7G cap), that is the so-called cap 0 structure. Learn More
In Vitro Transcriptional Synthesis of mRNA
In vitro transcription (IVT) is the synthesis of RNA molecules, allowing researchers to customize the synthesis processes and introduce modifications to produce transcripts. It is worth spending some time optimizing mRNA template design, IVT, and other process parameters to simplify downstream processing and ensure a proper balance of yield and secondary structure formation. The synthetic mRNA should contain four important structural elements: 5'-cap, untranslated regions (UTRs), open reading frame (ORF), and poly (A) tail at the 3'-end, they play essential roles in mRNA stability, subcellular localization, and translational efficiency. Learn More
Storage of Purified Oligonucleotides
The stability of purified oligonucleotides depends on the nature and temperature of the storage medium. Oligonucleotides are usually shipped as lyophilized dry powders. Transportation over short periods of time does not affect the stability of dry oligonucleotides, which can remain stable at 37°C (98°F) for up to 25 weeks. Learn More
What is Self-replicating RNA?
The important difference between self-replicating RNA (srRNA, also known as self-amplifying RNA) and regular mRNA is that it can use its own RNA sequence as a template for self-replication. Normally mRNAs encode proteins that need to be expressed, and ribosomes in the cell are used for translation and protein production...Learn More
What is Spherical Nucleic Acid?
Spherical nucleic acids (SNA) are nanostructures of densely packed and highly oriented arrays of linear nucleic acids in a three-dimensional spherical geometry. This new three-dimensional structure defines a new class of nucleic acids with properties that are distinctly different from similar linear (1D) chains of the same sequence. Learn More
RNA: Definition, Structure, Types & Functions
Ribonucleic Acid(RNA) is the genetic information carrier in biological cells, certain viruses, and viroid-like organisms. It is a chain-like molecule composed of ribonucleotides linked together by phosphodiester bonds. Ribonucleotide molecules consist of phosphate, ribose, and a base. Learn More
What is CRISPR-Cas9
The CRISPR-Cas system is a natural immune system in prokaryotes. Some bacteria, upon being invaded by viruses, can store a small segment of the viral genes in a region within their DNA known as CRISPR. Upon encountering the virus again, the bacteria can recognize the virus based on the stored segment...Learn More
RNA Synthetic Biology
Synthetic biology has gained considerable attention in recent years. It refers to the genetic design and modification of cells or living organisms by constructing biological functional components, devices, and systems to endow them with desired biological functions that meet human needs, and even the creation of entirely new biological systems. Learn More
How to Enhance the Promising Potential of siRNA Drugs
Nucleic Acid Therapy is a highly promising treatment approach that holds great potential. It involves introducing a segment of nucleic acid sequence to upregulate, downregulate, or correct target genes, enabling more precise disease treatment. Nucleic acid drugs can be categorized based on their composition into two main classes: DNA drugs and RNA drugs. Learn More
Transcription vs Translation Biology
Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template, where the code in the DNA is converted into a complementary RNA code. Translation is the synthesis of a protein from an mRNA template, where the code in the mRNA is converted to the amino acid sequence in the protein. Learn More
Click Chemistry in Oligonucleotide Synthesis
Click chemistry is a versatile reaction that can be used to synthesize a wide range of compound conjugates. The click reaction allows for the convenient introduction of designed small molecules into oligonucleotides and imparts a variety of additional properties to the oligonucleotide, such as optical, physical, and chemical properties. Learn More
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique widely used in molecular biology, diagnostics, forensics, and molecular genetics to amplify specific regions (amplicons) of a DNA sample. PCR can amplify several molecules of a precious DNA sample to produce a large amount of DNA, ranging from 50 to more than 25,000 base pairs in length. Learn More
DNA Damage and DNA Repair
DNA damage repair is a phenomenon that occurs when DNA molecules in biological cells recover their structure after being damaged by the action of various enzymes. The study of DNA damage repair helps to understand the mechanism of gene mutation, the causes of aging and cancer, and can also be applied to the detection of environmental carcinogens. Learn More
An Overview of Next Generation Sequencing
Gene sequencing is the only technical means to obtain nucleic acid sequence information directly, which is an important branch of molecular diagnostic technology. Although molecular hybridization and quantitative PCR technologies have been developed significantly in recent years, their identification of nucleic acids only stays on the assumption of indirect inference. Learn More
Circular RNA - A Candidate for Next Generation RNA Therapy
Circular RNA (circRNA) is a class of non-coding RNA molecules without a 5' terminal cap and a 3' terminal poly(A) tail, and form a ring structure by covalent bonding, which are objectively present in organisms, and are significantly different from linear RNAs. Learn More
DNA Origami for Nanomanufacturing, Biosensing and Drug Delivery
DNA origami is a molecular self-folding technique in which long single-stranded DNA scaffolds, typically M13 phage genomic DNA, are folded into well-defined objects by hundreds of short-stranded DNA staples in a one-pot method. The intrinsic addressability of DNA origami is achieved by supplementing different parts of the long single-stranded DNA scaffold with a unique set of DNA staples. Learn More
RNA Reverse Transcriptase
Reverse transcriptase, also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, first discovered in some RNA viruses, is an enzyme with reverse transcription activity that is capable of synthesizing DNA using single-stranded RNA as a template. Reverse transcriptase was first discovered in RNA viruses in 1970 by Howard Temin and David Baltimore. Learn More
Reviews of Phosphodiester Bond
In the field of biochemistry, the phosphodiester bond is considered to be a crucial molecular structure widely found in biological molecules such as nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, as well as adenosine triphosphate, and is also known as the 3’,5’-phosphodiester bond. It is important to note that the phosphodiester bond is a chemical group, not a covalent or ionic bond in the usual chemical sense. Learn More
TRIzol RNA Extraction Protocol
In the realm of molecular biology, the intricate dance between nucleic acids orchestrates the symphony of life. Among these, RNA emerges as a pivotal player, its multifaceted roles spanning from genetic regulation to cellular signaling. Understanding and extracting RNA with precision is paramount in unraveling the mysteries of biological processes. Learn More
RNA-Targeted Small Molecule Drug Development
For small molecule therapies, the vast majority of targets are proteins. This strategy has led to a large number of new drugs and breakthrough discoveries over the past few decades, but there are a number of problems and bottlenecks with this route. Learn More
Advances in mRNA Vaccines for Breast Cancer
Breast cancer ranks as the most prevalent malignant tumor globally. Standard treatment modalities encompass surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapy. Learn More
Advances in Tuberculosis Vaccine Research
Tuberculosis is one of the major challenges facing global public health and is the world's second-largest single infectious disease cause of death, second only to COVID-19 infection.Learn More
Assays for Quality Control in Small Nucleic Acid Drugs
Quality standard control is an important aspect in the manufacturing of oligonucleotides. Like the acceptance criteria for any active pharmaceutical ingredient, the quality standards for oligonucleotide raw materials are based on preclinical and clinical data, variability in production processes, and analytical control strategies. Learn More
DNA Data Storage: Overviews and Prospects
DNA storage is an effective fusion of biotechnology (BT) and information technology (IT), representing a green revolution in data storage. DNA is a large polymer composed of deoxyribonucleotides.Learn More
How to Study the Function of miRNA
miRNA is a kind of non-coding single-stranded RNA widely stored in the RNA molecule with a length of about 18-22 nucleotides, which can regulate gene expression through a variety of pathways, and plays an important role in the regulation of gene expression. Learn More
Introducing RNA Ligase
Eukaryotic RNA precursors undergo a process of splicing and ligation to form mature functional RNA molecules. RNA ligases are involved in repair, splicing, and editing pathways, which either reseal broken RNA or alter its primary structure.Learn More
Introduction to Transfection
With the continuous development of molecular biology and cell biology research, cell transfection has become a routine tool for studying gene function in cells. Cell transfection technology can be divided into two main categories: transient transfection and stable transfection. Learn More
Methods for Preparation of Circular RNA
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the development of mRNA vaccines, and the expedited approval of multiple vaccines has propelled the innovation of mRNA nucleic acid drugs. Learn More
Methods to Study CircRNA-Protein Interactions
Currently, circRNA has emerged as a hot topic in RNA research due to its diverse biological functions, ranging from gene expression regulation to protein encoding and mRNA competition. Learn More
New Research Hot Spot: Extracellular RNA
Extracellular RNA, abbreviated as exRNA, refers to RNA located outside of cells, including RNA in the environment as well as RNA found in the intercellular spaces or bodily fluids of multicellular organisms.Learn More
New Research on RNA Methylation Modifications (m6A)
RNA methylation modification refers to the process in which methyl groups are added to nucleotides under the mediation of RNA methyltransferases. m6A, a prevalent form of RNA methylation in eukaryotes, is one of the most common types of RNA methylation modifications, characterized by the addition of a methyl group to the N6 position of adenine. Learn More
Overviews of RNase and RNase Inhibitors
RNA ribonucleases (RNases) are nucleases that hydrolyze RNA, primarily by cleaving the phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides. RNAase molecules have stable structures, containing disulfide bonds, allowing them to maintain their activity even under conditions of high temperature or the presence of denaturing agents, without the need for divalent cations. Learn More
Restriction Enzyme: Definition, Types & Usages
Restricted endonucleases or restriction nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA into fragments at specific recognition sites or nearby (referred to as restriction sites) within the molecule. Restriction endonucleases are widely distributed, with at least one type found in almost every bacterial genus and species, with some genera harboring dozens of different types. Learn More
RNA Splicing Dysregulation and Cancer
RNA splicing is a highly regulated process, carried out by the spliceosome and other splicing regulatory factors. The spliceosome recognizes core regulatory sequences in pre-mRNA, including the 5' and 3' splice sites (5'SS and 3'SS) marking intron-exon boundaries, the branch point site (BPS), and the polypyrimidine tract. Learn More
Single-Cell RNA Sequencing and Its Applications
Nearly all human cells contain the same genetic material, but the transcriptional information in each cell reflects only the unique activity of its gene set. Analyzing gene expression activity within cells is considered one of the most reliable methods for understanding cell identity, status, function, and response. Learn More
Vector of Choice for Gene Therapy: AAV
Currently, gene therapy is one of the highly regarded fields of treatment because it directly intervenes at the root cause of diseases rather than just addressing symptoms. This therapy has shown success in preclinical trials by regulating gene expression or silencing in diseased cells. Learn More
An Overview of Taq DNA Polymerase in PCR
DNA polymerase is an essential enzyme involved in the processes of chromosome replication, repair, and recombination within cells, ensuring accurate replication and transmission of genetic information to daughter cells and offspring. Based on the analysis of DNA polymerase amino acid sequences and structures, it can be classified into seven major families: A, B, C, D, X, Y, and reverse transcriptase (RT) family. Learn More
CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing Technologies in the Development of Disease Therapies
Gene editing is a branch of genetic engineering, which is a breakthrough method capable of inserting, deleting, modifying, or replacing DNA in the living genome. Gene editing technology is a technique that targets specific changes in genetic material. Learn More
Gene Knockout: Principles, Methods and Applications
Gene knockout refers to the process of inactivating or disabling specific genes in the genome of an organism. Broadly speaking, gene knockout includes the complete knockout, partial knockout, deletion of gene regulatory sequences, and deletion of segmental genome sequences. Homologous recombination is currently a widely used method for gene knockout, where the knockedout gene is used to observe phenotypic changes in organisms or cells, making it an important tool for studying gene function. Learn More
Introducing Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)
Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is a type of circular DNA element present in the genome of cancer cells. Unlike the chromosomal inheritance mechanism in normal cells, ecDNA typically contains highly expressed enhancers and driver oncogenes. The circular topology of ecDNA leads to open chromatin conformation, generating novel gene regulatory interactions, including interactions with distal enhancers. Learn More
Introduction to mRNA Sequence Elements: Cap, CDS, UTR & PolyA
mRNA synthesized through in vitro transcription is a meticulously designed sequence to mimic the biological function of natural mRNA single-stranded transcripts in protein translation. The mRNA sequence consists of five key structural elements: the 5' cap structure (Cap), 5' untranslated region (UTR), coding sequence (CDS), 3' untranslated region (UTR), and poly(A) tail. Learn More
Overview of mRNA Drug Production Process
Currently, the mRNA drug production process is gradually maturing. The preparation and production of mRNA drugs need to consider three core issues. Learn More
Plasmids: Definition, Types and Applications
The molecular cloning technique employs a vector to transfer DNA fragments (target genes) into recipient cells, serving as a self-replicating DNA molecule tool. Common vectors include plasmids, bacteriophages, viruses, etc. Learn More
Primer Dimers: A Comprehensive Guide
Fluorescent real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) technology is arguably the most important and widely used nucleic acid quantification technique in modern molecular biology. Successful qPCR experiments rely on precise experimental design and operational procedures. One of the most common issues encountered is the formation of primer dimers. Learn More
Reviews of siRNA Nanocarriers for Blood-Brain Barrier(BBB) Penetration
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semi-permeable boundary formed by endothelial cells, which regulates the transfer of solutes and chemicals between the circulatory system and the central nervous system (CNS), thereby protecting the brain from the influence of harmful or unnecessary substances in the blood. The BBB is a natural protective membrane that prevents the CNS from being harmed by toxins and pathogens in the bloodstream. Learn More
SNP Genotyping: Technologies and Biomedical Applications
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms(SNPs) are variations in a single nucleotide in the genome, including transitions, transversions, deletions, and insertions, forming genetic markers with a large number and rich polymorphism. Theoretically, each SNP site can have four different variant forms, but in practice, only two occur, namely transitions and transversions, with a ratio of 2:1. SNPs occur most frequently in CG sequences, and most often involve the conversion of C to T. Learn More
Advances on Stimulus-Responsive Gene Editing Tools Delivery System
Gene editing tools are sophisticated instruments utilized to modify the genetic makeup of organisms. Their primary function is to introduce precise alterations into DNA sequences, including the addition, deletion, or modification of specific genes. Learn More
SNP Genotyping: Technologies and Biomedical Applications
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) belongs to the respiratory virus family and can cause respiratory infections in people of all ages throughout the year. It particularly poses a risk of severe infection and respiratory sequelae for pediatric patients, as well as for adults with immune deficiencies or underlying conditions. Learn More
RNA Polymerase Definition
RNA polymerase (RNApol or RNAP) is an enzyme that uses a single-stranded DNA or RNA template to build RNA by linking ribonucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) together with phosphodiester bonds. It's also called transcriptase because it copies genetic information from genes into RNA. Learn More
What are Spacer Phosphoramidites?
BOC RNA provides different spacer phosphoramidites and has been working closely with global partners in the field of nucleic acid chemistry to ensure efficient and accurate synthesis of DNA and RNA oligonucleotides.Learn More
What are Sensitive DNA/RNA Synthesis Materials?
DNA/RNA can co-exist with many sensitive organic functional groups. Examples of such groups include alkyl halides, benzyl halides, allyl halides, α-halo amides, esters, activated esters, carbonates, thioesters, tosylates, sulfonic esters, sultones, phosphates, α, β-unsaturated carbonyls, epoxides, aziridines, maleimides, vinyl arenes and methides. Learn More
What are Linker Phosphoramidites and Their Applications?
BOC RNA provides linker phosphoramidites used for DNA/RNA synthesis. Use an amino linker to conjugate biotin, fluorescein, or other modifiers and a reporter group to the 5'end of the oligonucleotide or adheres to the surface. Learn More
What are Label Phosphoramidites and Their Applications?
Label Phosphoramidites are a class of chemical reagents used in DNA and RNA synthesis to introduce various markers or modifying components into the nucleic acid sequence. Learn More
What are Dye Phosphoramidites and Their Applications?
Dye phosphoramidites are used by introducing a variety of dye molecules, which in turn exert their effects with various characteristics. We offer products such as fluorescein phosphoramidites, cyanine phosphoramidites, TAMRA phosphoramidites, JOE phosphoramidites, etc. These molecules are used in genome research, molecular diagnostics, and other fields. Learn More
What are RNA Phosphoramidites?
With many years of experience in engineered nucleic acid production, BOC RNA has accumulated a wealth of phosphoramidite technology expertise in protection chemistry, modification, production scale-up, and innovative purification strategies. Learn More
DNA vs RNA: Differences & Similarities
RNAs are multifunctional biomolecules that can be broadly defined as coding RNAs and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). ncRNAs are of various types, including tRNAs, lncRNAs, miRNAs, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), saRNAs, circRNAs, and exosomal RNAs, among other types. Learn More
Understanding Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): From Structure to Therapeutic Potential
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the most abundant RNA in the cell, accounting for more than 85% of total RNA. rRNA has defined species and conserved nucleotide sequences. rRNA does not perform its function when it exists alone, but when combined with a variety of proteins to form ribosomes, it can read the genetic information contained in the tRNA nucleotide sequences and translate them into sequences of amino acids in proteins. Learn More
Comprehensive Overview of DNA Ligase: Mechanisms, Types, and Applications
DNA ligase forms a phosphodiester bond between two DNA fragments. DNA ligase does not require a template because DNA ligase joins two nicks in a DNA double strand at the same time. DNA ligase is an enzyme that repairs DNA breaks by joining the 5´-phosphorylated ends of broken DNA to the 3´-OH ends, repairing breaks in the phosphate backbone of DNA. Learn More
DNA Methylation: Mechanisms and Applications in Disease and Research
DNA Methylation is the process by which specific bases in a DNA sequence acquire a methyl group by covalent bonding under the action of DNA methylation transferase (DNMT). DNA methylation is a form of chemical modification of DNA, which is a very conservative epigenetic modification capable of altering the activity of DNA fragments without changing the DNA sequence, thereby altering genetic expression. Learn More
DNA Vaccines: Mechanism, Benefits, and Advances
A DNA vaccine is actually a ring-shaped plasmid DNA constructed from a plasmid expression vector and a target gene for the intended antigen, which is injected into human cells and expresses the antigen encoded by the target gene, thus activating the immune response of the body. From the central law of molecular biology, it is known that DNA stores genetic information in the cell nucleus, transcribes to form mRNA, which directly guides protein translation, while proteins perform their functions in life activities, and immunogenic substances that can activate the body's immune response are proteins.Learn More
What is Mitochondrial DNA and Why is It Important?
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a small circular genome present in the energy-producing organelles of eukaryotic cells. mtDNA is the only DNA outside the nucleus, and it is always inherited from the mother in the parent. mtDNA encodes some of the core proteins necessary for mitochondrial function. Learn More
Recombinant DNA: Definition, Method, Mechanism and Applications
DNA recombination is the process of re-covalent combination of genetic information that occurs within or between DNA molecules. It includes intra-genomic large segment DNA translocation, inter-genomic large segment DNA transfer and even genomic integration. Learn More
DNA Replication: Definition, Characteristics and Biological Functions
DNA replication is an important biological process that everyone must be familiar with. This means that DNA replication is done correctly and genetic information is shared with daughter cells during cell division. This sophisticated machine includes a series of carefully choreographed steps and many essential enzymes and proteins that, as a whole, must replicate the entire genome with maximum fidelity. Learn More
What is Transcriptomics?
Transcriptomics is the study of the overall expression of all transcribed RNAs (mRNAs, non-coding RNAs including siRNAs, miRNAs, lincRNAs, etc.) and their regulation in living organisms. It comprehensively analyzes and identifies transcripts in cells or tissues through high-throughput sequencing technology, and quantitatively and functionally analyzes them through bioinformatics methods to reveal gene expression regulatory networks and related biological functions. Learn More
DNA Ladders: Structure, Composition and Functions
A DNA ladder, also known as a DNA molecular weight marker, is a standard reference utilized in gel electrophoresis to determine the size of DNA fragments. It consists of a mixture of DNA fragments with well-defined lengths, serving as benchmarks to estimate the sizes of unknown DNA samples. These ladders are indispensable tools in molecular biology laboratories, particularly in applications involving the analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products, restriction enzyme digests, and various other nucleic acid manipulations. Learn More
Pri miRNA and Pri miRNA Primer: Insights into Structure and Function
Primary microRNAs (pri-miRNAs) are the initial transcripts of miRNA genes, playing a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotic organisms. These long RNA molecules, typically ranging from hundreds to thousands of nucleotides, contain one or more stem-loop structures that give rise to mature miRNAs upon processing. Learn More
RNA Sequencing: Definition, Protocol and Applications
RNA sequencing, or RNA-seq, is a next-generation sequencing (NGS) method that allows researchers to identify and quantify RNA molecules in a biological sample. RNA-seq captures the entire transcriptome, providing insights into gene expression, alternative splicing, post-transcriptional modifications, and non-coding RNA activity. Learn More
Understanding RNA Primase: Functions and Importance in DNA Replication
RNA primase is an enzyme involved in synthesizing a short RNA primer during the early stages of DNA replication. This primer is complementary to the DNA template strand and serves as a substrate for DNA polymerase, which then elongates the DNA strand. Unlike DNA polymerase, which requires an existing strand to function, RNA primase can synthesize RNA de novo without a primer, making it indispensable in initiating DNA synthesis. Learn More
What is the Oligonucleotide Ligation Assay(OLA) and How does it Work?
The Oligonucleotide Ligation Assay is a specialized technique designed to detect target nucleic acid sequences by employing two or more short, specifically designed oligonucleotides. These oligonucleotides are crafted to hybridize adjacent to the target sequence in a way that their 3' and 5' ends align perfectly for ligation. The ligation process is facilitated by a class of enzymes known as ligases, which catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides, effectively joining the oligonucleotides into a longer strand of DNA. Learn More
Gene Mutation: Definition, Causes, Types & Implications
Gene mutation refers to a permanent alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a gene. These changes can occur in various ways, including substitutions, insertions, or deletions of nucleotides. The significance of a mutation is often determined by its effect on the gene's function, which can range from benign to pathogenic. Mutations can occur in coding regions of genes, where they may directly affect the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein, potentially altering its structure and function. For example, a missense mutation may lead to a single amino acid change that could impair protein function, while a nonsense mutation introduces a premature stop codon, truncating the protein. Learn More
Exploring RNA Editing: Mechanisms, Functions and Applications
RNA editing refers to the biochemical modifications made to RNA transcripts, often involving the insertion, deletion, or substitution of nucleotides. The modifications occur after RNA synthesis (transcription) but before translation, altering the information encoded in mRNA and affecting how genes are expressed. These edits can affect everything from protein-coding sequences to untranslated regions (UTRs), and they are critical for generating biological diversity, especially in complex organisms. Learn More
Exploring Polycistronic mRNA: Implications for Biotechnology
Polycistronic mRNA is defined as a type of messenger RNA that contains multiple coding sequences, allowing for the translation of several proteins from a single RNA molecule. This structure is particularly common in prokaryotes, where operons - clusters of genes transcribed together - are prevalent. Each coding region within a polycistronic mRNA is separated by intergenic regions, which may contain regulatory elements that can influence the expression of the adjacent genes. Learn More
Exploring DNA Gyrase: Structure, Function and Therapeutic Potential
DNA gyrase, a unique type of topoisomerase found exclusively in bacteria, plays a crucial role in manipulating DNA topology, which is essential for bacterial survival and replication. This enzyme has garnered significant attention in the pharmaceutical industry, particularly as a target for antibiotic development. It is an ATP-dependent enzyme that introduces negative supercoils into DNA, facilitating the proper compaction and organization of bacterial chromosomes. Learn More
DNA Microarrays Explained: Technology, Applications and Innovations
A DNA microarray, often referred to as a gene chip, is a solid surface that contains a grid of microscopic spots, each representing a unique DNA sequence corresponding to a specific gene. These spots contain probes that hybridize with complementary DNA or RNA from biological samples, allowing researchers to assess gene expression levels across a multitude of genes simultaneously. DNA microarray technology has revolutionized the field of genomics by enabling simultaneous analysis of thousands of genes, facilitating extensive studies in gene expression profiling, disease diagnostics, and therapeutic developments. Learn More
DNA Fingerprinting: A Tool for Genetic Identification
DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, has transformed the landscape of forensic science and biological identification. This revolutionary technique utilizes the unique variations in DNA sequences to differentiate individuals, providing a powerful tool for criminal investigations, paternity testing, and historical research. DNA fingerprinting is a method that analyzes specific regions in the DNA where variations occur, primarily focusing on repetitive sequences such as short tandem repeats (STRs) and variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). Learn More
Anti-dsDNA Antibodies: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications
Anti-dsDNA antibodies, also called dsDNA antibodies, specifically target the double-stranded form of DNA, which is a hallmark of SLE. Their presence is often associated with disease activity and severity, particularly in relation to lupus nephritis. Anti-dsDNA antibodies exhibit several unique characteristics, including a high affinity for nucleosomal structures and a strong association with renal involvement in lupus patients. Learn More
Nobel Prize-Winning MicroRNAs: Important Regulators of Stem Cells
MicroRNA (miRNA) is a small non-coding RNA molecule that plays a key role in regulating gene expression and cellular processes. Their discovery has greatly advanced our understanding of molecular biology and gene regulation. Recent studies have revealed critical functions of miRNAs in stem cell biology, especially in stem cell maintenance, differentiation and therapeutic applications. Learn More
* Only for research. Not suitable for any diagnostic or therapeutic use.
